In order to fully understand how the male gaze has been addressed in these particular artists’ work, it is important first to understand the concept of representation. Culture theorist Stuart Hall interrogates the purpose of representation in visual culture and poses the argument of cultures’ importance when becoming a voyeur. Hall argues that, ‘The meaning is not in the object or person or thing, nor is it in the word. It is we who fix the meaning so firmly that, after a while, it comes to seem natural and inevitable. The meaning is constructed by the system of representation (Hall 1997:21)’.The process of language externalising meaning is natural for humans; classification and organisation are some of the quintessential human qualities. However this has proven to create a complex relationship between reality and visual representation.
Representation as a social construct is problematic in many ways. The regimes which exist in support of representation largely shape our experience of the world, whether we are aware of it or not. For example, middle to upper class white men generally hold the power to define the truths about the people and the world we see in the media. This is a direct result of them being the most likely demographic to own the means of distributing information or images. Although consumers may believe that they can trust in images either seen in magazines or social media, ultimately it is impossible for them to be completely unbiased. Tagg (1993:63) argues, “like the state, the camera is never neutral”. This boasts an example of who holds the power to define truths. Photography, like all other forms of visual culture is produced as a result of “chance effects, purposeful interventions, choices and variations” (Tagg 1993:3).
Traditionally Art has been associated with male binaries, activities in which men had better opportunity to participate in. This resulted in women becoming ‘passive’ participants in such pursuits. The male with his power to make, was consequently enabled to create in ways which suit and appeal to his sexuality. Inevitably, men were in turn able to look at art which appeals to their sexuality. This has created an exhibitionist role for women, in which they are merely on display for the pleasure of men. The idea of the female being on display has been explored by feminist film theorist Laura Mulvey. In her book Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema, she states, “In their traditional exhibitionist role, women are simultaneously looked at and displayed… women can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness” (Mulvey 2006:11). This somewhat implies that femininity itself is a masquerade, and many women can play the role to their desired extent.
In the essay ‘Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernizaion of Patriarchal Power’ Sandra Lee Bartley examines the establishment of gender binaries. She writes, “We are born male or female, but not masculine or feminine. Femininity is an artifice, an achievement, “a mode of enacting and reenacting received gender norms which surface as so many styles of the flesh””(Bartky 1988:132). From this we can understand that gender binaries are learned and are socially constructed.
Despite a complex history of sexual objectification and misrepresentation, many female artists have undoubtedly taken the opportunity to use their femininity as a tool for challenging the male gaze. The objective of this essay is to explore how visual representation in three different artworks actively question the male gaze and create a discourse surrounding women’s role in visual culture.
Francesca Woodman was best known for her black and white photographs, typically featuring female models or herself. Her work continues to attract attention and review, despite her tragic death by suicide at the age of 22. This photograph (figure 1) from 1976 depicts Woodman placed in a derelict interior.
The first thing that is striking to the eye is the emptiness of the room. The saturation of light in the room crates a chilling white space, which immediately gives the viewer a sense of her isolation and detachment from the outside world. Along with this is her position in the photograph, it very much looks as if she’s being cornered and her defensive body language is resulting in her looking very uncomfortable.
American radical feminist Andrea Dworkin examined in her book Woman-Hating explores the relationship between expectations of women, and the affect that it can have on physical and psychological freedom. “Standardised beauty describes in precise terms the relationship that an individual will have to her own body. They prescribe her mobility, spontaneity, posture, gait, the uses to which she can put her body. They define precisely the dimensions of her physical freedom. And of course, the relationship between physical freedom and psychological development, intellectual possibility, and creative potential is an umbilical one”(Dworkin 1974: 113-114). From this it is possible to propose that Woodman is expressing the lack of physical or psychological freedom that many women experience through the medium of photography.
The shadow-like indentation on the floor is a dark contrast to an otherwise heavily exposed image. It could be argued that this is an an analogy for the spectator who is surveying. More so, this figure could refer to Foucault’s idea of the panopticon- a symbol of continual disciplinary surveillance.
Physically, her breasts and stomach are lighter skinned than the rest of her body. This to me insinuates that we as the viewer are seeing areas of her body which possibly we are not supposed to be, and perhaps makes her feel extremely vulnerable. Immediately this renders me rather uncomfortable and guilty for being a spectator of the image. The cropped format of the image is small and intimate, meaning there is very little else to look at, forcing the eye towards Woodman’s naked figure. The placement of her hands not only contributes to her uneasy body language, but also preserves her remaining intimate areas from the spectator.
Of course all of these artistic choices were done intentionally. Unlike typical self-portraits, Woodman uses her own images to challenge wider social ideologies such as the gaze, gender and constructed binaries of femininity. In many of her works she uses objects which are stereotypically deemed ‘feminine’ in order to challenge social norms. For example in this image, the ‘Mary Jane’ shoes which she is wearing challenge the idealised versions of femininity. The strong emotions which are conjured when viewing this image are effective in forcing the viewer to question their behaviour.
American artist Cindy Sherman is well known for her use of satire in her work. Sherman works predominantly with socially critical photography, which often involves appropriating the stereotype of the surveyed woman, consciously playing the role which women have been forced into throughout history; “the surveyed female”( Berger 1972:47).
On examining Figure 2, it is clear that it is a very intimate moment. We see a beautiful young woman who is seemingly unaware of her vulnerability whilst viewing herself . The bathroom door is ajar, however Sherman remains nonchalant whilst posing in the mirror. Secondly, whilst considering the medium of the image, it becomes disturbing to take into consideration the presence of a photographer at this private moment. Regardless, this would still be considered by many a playful, sexual image.
I am particularly interested in the use of the mirror in this photograph. Through her self observation, she is admitting to joining the spectators herself. She has made a conscious decision to show her awareness of the gaze, and most importantly uses it to condemn those gazing upon her. Similar to Woodman, Sherman constructs a sense of guilt in the voyeur for objectifying Sherman herself. This mockery is particularly progressive in changing the behaviour of not only spectators, but the male artists of the future.
In Berger’s book Ways of Seeing, he uses Rubens’ Helene Fourment in a fur coat as an example of the importance of time when spectating images. “In a superficial sense her image is as instantaneous as a photograph’s. But, in a more profound sense, the painting ‘contains’ time and its experience. It is easy to imagine that a moment ago before she pulled the fur round her shoulders, she was entirely naked. The consecutive sages up to and away from the moment of total disclosure have been transcended. She can belong to any or all of them simultaneously (Berger: 1972:60-61)”. This can easily be applied to this image by Sherman. From this image we can imagine the process of putting on the towel, and by looking at the way it is being delicately held up, it is possible to predict what could have happened following this photograph.
However when considering the date of publication, the artist and the inviting style of the image, it very quickly becomes a parody of cultural conditioning. Sherman’s work is not only a powerful statement against women’s passive status in the past, but it also remains extremely relevant in today’s society as we continue to question equality issues which are still prevalent.
Taking inspiration from her past as a graphic designer, Barbara Kruger’s work is best known for its assertive formulas and monotonous visual imagery. Working with photographic prints, video, cloth, and other mixed media, Kruger’s work often exposes the truth of ‘real’ women, which are often not depicted by the media. She describes her work as a “series of attempts to ruin certain representations, to displace the subject and to welcome a female spectator into the audience of men”(Kruger 1987:40).
Figure 3, produced in 1981, may seem a self explanatory statement as a disregard for the male gaze. However a series of choices in this image have collectively created a powerful and iconic statement for women in visual culture.
The use of the female bust is a clever representation of women’s exhibitionist role in which they are made solely useful for male viewing pleasure. The expression suggest complete disregard and lack of care for whoever is spectating the image. A complete focus and look of determination implies the need to bring about social change by education and honesty about the male gaze.
Sandra Lee Bartky explores in her book Femininity and Domination: Studies in the Phenomenology of Oppression, that it is possible to internalise the male gaze. She states, “Knowing that she is to be subjected to the cold appraisal of the male connoisseur and that her life prospects may depend on how she is seen, a woman learns to appraise herself first. The sexual objectification of women produces a duality in feminine consciousness. The gaze of the other is internalized so that I myself become at once seer and seen, appraiser and the thing appraised”(Bartky 1990:38).
Through Kruger’s choice of words, we can understand that the gaze in this case has not been internalised. It has hit the side of the face, and therefore is not changing the woman’s perception of herself. She has chosen to ignore the self-policing culture, and is dismissing the idea that the surveyor within herself is male. This in itself is proof that many women are diverting this societal inequality away from them in order to change the representation of women as artists and as subjects.
In contrast to the other two images, Figure 3 is equally successful in examining and challenging the male gaze in visual culture. Although self portraiture and in particular the female body can be highly effective in addressing objectification, it is evident that it is possible to do so in a direct style. Whether it be a physical, satirical, or literal imitation of the male gaze being displayed, it is certain that all three of the artists covered in this essay have, and will continue to have, a profound influence on the conversation regarding the male gaze.
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Woodman, F. (1976) Untitled, Providence, Rhode Island. Photographic gelatine silver print on paper.
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Rubens, P. (1636-138) Helene Fourment in a Fur Robe. Oil on canvas.
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Pollinate 